Borobudur Temple - 2

Inside Ancient Megastructure
GREAT BOROBUDUR TEMPLE - 2
The Heritage of Sailendra Dynasty For The World

Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. Some scholars think that this massive monument is a gigantic textbook of Buddhism to help people to achieve enlightenment. To read this Buddhist textbook in stone requires a walk of more than two miles. The walls of the galleries are adorned with impressive reliefs illustrating the life of Buddha Shakyamuni and the principles of his teaching.

Schematic shape of Great Borobudur Temple from top view.

ARCHITECTURE

The foundation of Great Borobudur Temple is a square, approximately 118 meters on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular.

Square Foundation compare to Aerial View of Great Borobudur Temple.

The upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.

Aerial Photograph of The Great Borobudur Temple.

The architect Gunadharma is actually recounted from Javanese legendary folk tales (rather than written in old inscriptions). He was said to be one who "... bears the measuring rod, knows division and thinks himself composed of parts." The basic unit measurement he used during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance. The unit metrics is then obviously relative between persons, but the monument has exact measurements.

Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia which have identical measurement ratio formula with Great Borobudur Temple (4:6:9)

A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur. The identical ratio formula was further found in the nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and Mendhut. Archeologists conjectured the purpose of the ratio formula and the tala dimension has calendrical, astronomical and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.

Cross Section of Great Borobudur Temple, showing 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head.

Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other temples and its general design similar to the shape of pyramid.

The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups : The Base, The Body and The Top. These three groups are resembles the three major division of a human body.

The Base (or foot) which is a 123x123 m² square in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls.

The Body which is composed of five square platforms each with diminishing heights.

The first terrace is set back 7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of the base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage.

The Top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles.

There is one main dome at the center, the top of which is the highest point of the monument (35 meters above ground level). Access to the upper part is through stairways at the centre of each side with a number of gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues.

The Main Gate Entrance of Great Borobudur Temple at the eastern side of the Site.

The main entrance is at the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways linking the monument to the low-lying plain. The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental preparation towards the ultimate goal according to the Buddhist cosmology as Kamadhatu (the world of desires) which is represented by the base, Rupadhatu (the world of forms) which is represented by the five square platforms (the body), Arupadhatu (the formless world) which is represented by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa.

RELIEF

A Sample of Carved Relief Stone from Great Borobudur Temple

Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kamadhatu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu). The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara, are grouped into 11 series encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft).

Relief at the corridor wall of Great borobudur Temple showing Bodhisattva departed the Tushita heaven surrounded by a hundred thousand million kotis of bodhisattvas, Devas, nagas and yaksas.

The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right. The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels.

A Relief of the Great Borobudur Temple, illustrating Buddha History.

The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.

BUDDHA STATUE

Various Buddha Statue at the body of Great Borobudur Temple

Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level). The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level.

Buddha Statue inside Stupa of Great Borobudur Temple.

At the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as collector's items, mostly by Western museums).

Buddha Statue on the upper terrace of Great Borobudur Temple.

At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represent one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism. They are Abhaya mudra for Amoghasiddhi (north), Vara mudra for Ratnasambhava (south), Dhyana mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa mudra for Aksobhya (east) and Dharmachakra mudra for Vairochana (zenith).

In the end, as one of the World's Seven Wonder, There still so many untold story about The Great Borobudur Temple...and waiting to be discovered.

Summary from several source :
- Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library
- UNESCO
- Wikipedia
- Many Book and Internet Site which can not be mentioned one by one here

Selengkapnya.....

Borobudur Temple - 1

Inside Ancient Megastructure
GREAT BOROBUDUR TEMPLE - 1
The Heritage of Sailendra Dynasty For The World

Borobudur is a ninth century Mahayana Buddhist monument in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. A main dome is located at the center of the top platform, and is surrounded by seventy-two Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa.

Great Borobudur Temple in Magelang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia.

OVERVIEW

The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path circumambulating the monument while ascending to the top through the three levels of Buddhist cosmology, namely, Kamadhatu (the world of desire); Rupadhatu (the world of forms); and Arupadhatu (the world of formless). During the journey, the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades. Evidence suggests Borobudur was abandoned following the fourteenth century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java, and the Javanese conversion to Islam. It was rediscovered in 1814 by Sir Thomas Raffles, the British ruler of Java.

LOCATION

Approximately 40 kilometers northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility.

Besides Borobudu compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mr, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including the Prambanan templesendut, are lined in one straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown.

CONSTRUCTION
Illustration of Sailendra Dynasty at the moment Borobudur Temple was built.

There is no written record of who built Borobudur or of its intended purpose. The construction time has been estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the eight and ninth centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 AD. This corresponds to the period between 760–830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java, when it was under the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.

ABANDONMENT

Borobudur Temple condition after being abandoned in centuries.

Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Somewhere between 928 and 1006, the center of power moved to East Java region and series of volcanic eruptions took place; it is not certain whether the latter influenced the former but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment. Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the fifteenth century.

REDISCOVERY

Java was under British administration from 1811 to 1816. The appointed governor was Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles, who took great interest in the history of Java. He collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local inhabitants during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not able to make the discovery himself and sent H.C. Cornelius (a Dutch engineer) to investigate, In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles including various drawings. Although the discovery is only mentioned by a few sentences. Then later, Raffles has been credited with the monument's recovery, as one who had brought it to the world's attention. Hartmann, a Dutch administrator of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius' work and in 1835 the whole complex was finally unearthed.

First Borobudur Temple Photograph taken by Isidore van Kinsbergen in 1873.

The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. J.F.G. Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859. The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1873 by a Dutch-Flemish engraver, Isidore van Kinsbergen.

CONTEMPORARY EVENT

Following the major 1973 renovation funded by UNESCO, Borobudur is once again used as a place of worship and pilgrimage. Once a year, during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak (Indonesian: Waisak) day commemorating the birth, death, and the time when Siddhārtha Gautama attained the highest wisdom to become the Buddha Shakyamuni. Vesak is an official national holiday in Indonesia and the ceremony is centered at the three Buddhist temples by walking from Mendut to Pawon and ending at Borobudur.

Great Borobudur Temple, used as a place of worship for Buddhism and also a place for Tourism.

The monument is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia. In 1974, 260,000 tourists of whom 36,000 were foreigners visited the monument. The figure hiked into 2.5 million visitors annually (80% were domestic tourists) in the mid 1990s, before the country's economy crisis.

RESTORATION
Great Borobudur Temple condition after uncovered from trees, bushes and volcanic ashes.

Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when Yzerman, the Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the hidden foot. Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–1891. The discovery has led the Dutch East Indies government to take a necessary step to safeguard the monument. In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, fencing off the courtyards, providing proper maintenance and improving drainage by restoring floors and spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored.

The Dutch Government prepare for Early Restoration if Great Borobudur Temple.

The restoration then was carried out between 1907–1911, using the principles of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the monument. At first glance Borobudur had been restored to its old glory.

Major Restoration of Great Borobudur Temple by UNESCO.

In the late 1960s, the Indonesian government had requested a major renovation from the international community. In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur was created. The Indonesian government and UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul of the monument in a big restoration project between 1975–1982. The foundation was stabilized and all 1,460 panels were cleaned. The restoration involved the dismantling of the five square platforms and improved the drainage by embedding water channels into the monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were added. This colossal project involved around 600 people to restore the monument and cost in total of US$ 6,901,243. After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in 1991.

To Be Continue....


NEXT...............
Inside Ancient Megastructure
GREAT BOROBUDUR TEMPLE - 2
The Heritage of Sailendra Dynasty For The World
- Architecture of Great Borobudur Temple
- Relief of Great Borobudur Temple
- Statues of Great Borobudur Temple

Ony on http://belajar-bikin-blog.blogspot.com/

Summary from several source :
- Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library
- UNESCO
- Wikipedia
- Many Book and Internet Site which can not be mentioned one by one here

Selengkapnya.....

Majapahit Empire

Most Amazing Moment of Nusantara
MAJAPAHIT EMPIRE
The Fore-Founder of Present Indonesia

Majapahit was an Indianized Empire based in eastern Java from 1293 to around 1500. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when it dominated other kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan, Sumatra, Bali, and the Philippines.

One of Majapahit Empire's Legacy - Gapura Bajangratu as one of the main gate to the palace (Temon Village, Trowulan District, Mojokerto Regency, East Java Province - Indonesia).

OVERVIEW

The Majapahit Empire was the last of the major Hindu Empires of the Malay archipelago and is considered one of the greatest states in Indonesian history. Its influence extended to states on Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and Eastern Indonesia.

Influence of Majapahit Domination (Based on Nagarakertagama, the accuracy is not absolute).

HISTORY

In 1293, Raden (Duke) Wijaya founded a stronghold with the capital Majapahit. The exact date used as the birth of the Majapahit kingdom is the day of his coronation, the 15th of Kartika month in the year 1215 using the Javanese çaka calendar, which equates to November 10, 1293. During his coronation he was given formal name Kertarajasa Jayawardhana.

Sculpture Illustration of Wijaya Coronation as King Kertarajasa Jayawardhana of Majapahit.

The new kingdom faced challenges. Some of Kertarajasa's most trusted men, including Ranggalawe, Sora, and Nambi rebelled against him, though unsuccessfully. It was suspected that the mahapati (equal with prime minister) Halayudha set the conspiracy to overthrow all of the king's opponents, to gain the highest position in the government. However, after following the death of the last rebel Kuti, Halayudha was captured and jailed for his tricks, and then sentenced to death. Wijaya himself died in AD 1309.

The Statue Wijaya as Harihara (The God Combination of Shiva and Vishnu), made as an Honor to Wijaya after He died.

Wijaya's son and successor, Jayanegara was notorious for immorality. One of his sinful acts was taking his own step-sisters as wives. He was entitled Kala Gemet, or "weak villain". In AD 1328, Jayanegara was murdered by his doctor, Tantja.His stepmother, Gayatri Rajapatni, was supposed to replace him, but Rajapatni retired from court to become a bhiksuni (a female Buddhist monk) in a monastery. Rajapatni appointed her daughter, Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi, or known in her formal name as Tribhuwannottungadewi Jayawishnuwardhani, as the queen of Majapahit under Rajapatni's auspices. During Tribhuwana’s rule, the Majapahit kingdom grew much larger and became famous in the area. Tribhuwana ruled Majapahit until the death of her mother in AD 1350. She was succeeded by her son, Hayam Wuruk.

GOLDEN AGE

Hayam Wuruk, also known as Rajasanagara, ruled Majapahit in AD 1350–1389. During his period, Majapahit attained its peak with the help of his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Under Gajah Mada's command (AD 1313–1364), Majapahit conquered more territories. In 1377, a few years after Gajah Mada's death, Majapahit sent a punitive naval attack against Palembang, contributing to the end of the Srivijayan kingdom. Gajah Mada's other renowned general was Adityawarman, known for his conquest in Minangkabau.

Terracotta head identified as Gajah Mada in the Trowulan Site Museum, Indonesia.

Si Rocok, 4.14 meters tall Bhairawa Statue as an Illustration of Adityawarman (National Museum of Indonesia).

According to the book of Nagarakertagama pupuh (canto) XIII and XIV mentioned several states in Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara islands, Maluku, Papua, and some parts of Philippines islands as under Majapahit realm of power. This source mentioned of Majapahit expansions has marked the greatest extent of Majapahit empire. The Nagarakertagama, written in 1365 depict a sophisticated court with refined taste in art and literature, and a complex system of religious rituals. The poet describes Majapahit as the centre of a huge mandala extending from New Guinea and Maluku to Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. Local traditions in many parts of Indonesia retain accounts in more or less legendary from 14th century Majapahit's power. Majapahit's direct administration did not extend beyond east Java and Bali, but challenges to Majapahit's claim to overlordship in outer islands drew forceful responses.

DOWNFALL

Following Hayam Wuruk's death AD 1389, Majapahit power entered a period of decline with conflict over succession. Hayam Wuruk was succeeded by the crown princess Kusumawardhani, who married a relative, Prince Wikramawardhana. Hayam Wuruk also had a son from his previous marriage, crown prince Wirabhumi, who also claimed the throne. A civil war, called Paregreg, is thought to have occurred from 1405 - 1406, of which Wikramawardhana was victorious and Wirabhumi was caught and decapitated. Wikramawardhana ruled to 1426 AD and was succeeded by his daughter Suhita, who ruled from 1426 to 1447 AD. She was the second child of Wikramawarddhana by a concubine who was the daughter of Wirabhumi.

In 1447, Suhita died and was succeeded by Kertawijaya, her brother. He ruled until 1451 AD. After Kertawijaya died, Bhre Pamotan became a king with formal name Rajasawardhana and ruled at Kahuripan. He died in 1453 AD. A three year kingless period was possibly the result of a succession crisis. Girisawardhana, son of Kertawijaya, came to power 1456. He died in 1466 AD and was succeeded by Singhawikramawardhana. In 1468 AD Prince Kertabhumi rebelled against Singhawikramawardhana promoting himself king of Majapahit.

Singhawikramawardhana moved the Kingdom’s capital to Daha and continued his rule until he was succeeded by his son Ranawijaya in 1474 AD. In 1478 AD he defeated Kertabhumi and reunited Majapahit as one Kingdom. Ranawijaya ruled from 1474 AD to 1519 AD with the formal name Girindrawardhana. Nevertheless, Majapahit's power had declined through these family conflicts and the growing power of the north-coastal kingdoms in Java.

Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca. Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 (that is, 1400 Saka, the ends of centuries being considered a time when changes of dynasty or courts normally ended) to 1527. The year is marked among Javanese today with candra sengkala "sirna ilang kertaning bumi" (the wealth of earth disappeared and diminished) (sirna = 0, ilang = 0, kerta = 4, bumi = 1). After series of battles with the Sultanate of Demak, the last remaining courtsmen of Majapahit were forced to withdraw eastward to Kediri. This small state was finally extinguished at the hands of the Demak in 1527. A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of Bali. However, the crown and the seat of government moved to Demak under the leadership of Pengeran (Prince) Fatah, Known later as Sultan (King) Fatah.

Summary from several source :
- Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library
- Majapahit Kingdom
- Wikipedia

Selengkapnya.....

Java

Did You Know This?
JAVA ISLAND
The most populated island of Indonesia

OVERVIEW

Java extends in a generally easterly and westerly direction for a distance of about 1050 km (about 650 mi). The maximum width of the island, which lies about midway between the 5th and 10th parallels of south latitude, is about 204 km (about 127 mi). Jakarta is the largest city of Java and the capital of Indonesia. Other important cities in Java are Yogyakarta, Bandung, Semarang, Surabaya, Cirebon, Pekalongan, Sukabumi, Malang, and Solo. The area of Java is 134,045 sq km (51,755 sq mi). The population of Java (1995 estimate) is 114,733,500 (figure includes the population of the nearby island of Madura).

THE LAND

Java is traversed from east to west by a volcanic mountain chain. This longitudinal uplift has approximately 110 volcanic centers, including about 35 active craters. Semeru (3676 m/12,060 ft), situated in the eastern portion of the island, is the highest volcano and one of the most active. Elevations in western Java are generally lower, rarely exceeding 1737 m (5700 ft). Besides Semeru, the most active volcanoes of Java include Bromo, Kawah Ijen, and Tangkuban Perahu. Java has been the scene of a number of disastrous volcanic eruptions, notably that of Mount Ringgit in 1686, when about 10,000 lives were lost, and that of Papandayan in 1772, when about 3000 persons were killed. A low coastal plain, with a maximum width of about 64 km (about 40 mi), adjoins the central mountain chain on the north. The southern part of the island is occupied by a series of limestone ridges, which form a precipitous coastal escarpment. The rivers of Java are generally swift, narrow, and shallow. The Solo River, about 540 km (about 335 mi) in length, is the largest stream. The best natural harbors are on the northern coast.

CLIMATE

Temperatures as high as 37° C (99° F) occur at midday in the coastal and lowland regions of Java, and the relative humidity often exceeds 80 percent. During the rainy season, from November to April, ocean breezes and frequent thunderstorms have a cooling influence. At elevations above 610 m (2000 ft) temperate climatic conditions prevail, and temperatures as low as -2° C (27° F) occur at extreme elevations. The mean annual precipitation is about 2030 mm (about 80 in). Wide regional variations occur, however, with extremes ranging from an annual maximum of about 4215 mm (about 166 in) at Bogor to an annual minimum of about 890 mm (about 35 in) at Assembagus.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS

The vegetation of Java is luxuriant, particularly along the lower slopes of the central mountain chain and on the coastal plain. In addition to a broad variety of plants, numerous species of trees, including palms, bamboo, acacia, rubber, and teak, abound in this zone, which is confined largely to the area below 518 m (1700 ft). The teak forests, one of the most valuable natural resources of Java, are extensive. Among the trees common to the higher slopes of the central uplift are the magnolia, rasamala, oak, elm, laurel, maple, and chestnut. Stands of timber occupy approximately 23 percent of the total surface of the island. Java also has a numerous and diversified fauna.

Noteworthy animals are the one-horned rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, banteng (wild ox), wild pig, flying lemur, and several species of ape. The island is the habitat of more than 400 species of birds, including the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), the green peacock, 2 species of parrot, the swift (Collocalia), 10 species of pigeon, 2 species of cuckoo, and 11 species of heron. Among the reptilian fauna are the great python (Python reticulatus), cobra, a species of adder, and the crocodile. Some crocodiles attain 9 m (30 ft) in length. The coastal and inland waters teem with fish, including many edible varieties. Crabs, crayfish, and lobsters are numerous.

THE PEOPLE
The population of Java is composed largely of Malayan peoples, who speak various dialects of the Malay language; a majority of the population belongs to the Sundanese, the Javanese, and the Madurese dialect-speaking groups. The Sundanese inhabit the extreme western portion of the island, the Javanese inhabit the central part, and the Madurese inhabit the eastern part. The overwhelming majority of the population is Muslim.



HISTORY

Several fossils of early forms of humans have been found in Java, including the oldest Homo erectus fossils known outside of Africa. The first H. erectus skull ever discovered was found on the island in 1891 and became known as Java Man. More recent discoveries suggest that H. erectus may have lived on Java from as early as 1.8 million years ago to as recently as 50,000 years ago. Remains from 50,000 to 10,000 years ago indicate the coexistence of several direct ancestors of humans with affinities to both the northern Peking man (Homo erectus, formerly called Sinanthropus pekinensis) and to an eastern group whose fossils are found in Australia. Scattered stone tools have been found from this period; the characteristic implement was a chopper with a thick, steeply cut edge, which was occasionally pointed.

Of major importance in shaping the socioeconomic base of Javanese culture was the cultivation of rice in irrigated fields. Labor and society were rooted in small villages (desas) presided over by regional chiefs. Women occupied a particularly significant position in the evolving Javanese social structure, which preserved traces of matrilineal descent and succession. Technological developments included the domestication of the ox and buffalo and use of the outrigger canoe, indicating the possibility of early maritime contact as far west as Madagascar and as far east as Easter Island. Several cultural phenomena that survive to the present day may also date from this period: the wayang (shadow puppet theater), gamelan (wind and percussion orchestra), and batik (a technique of dyeing fabrics with the use of wax).

INDIAN INFLUENCE

During the early centuries of the Christian era, cultural influences from India became predominant. Indian merchants in the spice trade brought elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, Indian literature and legal codes, and the Sanskrit language and Indian scripts (especially from southern India). These spread first to the Javanese aristocracy and later to other segments of the population. The syncretism of the new Hindu-Buddhist-Javanese culture is most evident in the 9th-century Buddhist monument of Borobudur in central Java. It was built by the Sailendras (“Lords of the Mountains”), who came to power in central and parts of western Java in the 8th century.

In the 9th century Sailendra princes were the rulers of the Sumatran Empire of Sri Vijaya, through matrimonial alliances between the two power centers. The most interesting figure of the 11th century was Airlangga, who has become a legendary hero in Hindu-Javanese history. After Airlangga's death the kingdom was split, and the western portion, Kediri, became dominant and ruled until 1222. Its successor was the kingdom of Singosari, which lasted until about 1292. Kublai Khan's Mongols raided the island in 1293, but without any significant success. The last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom was that of Majapahit, which existed during the 14th century. The founding minister of the kingdom, Gajah Mada, is one of the great figures in Indonesian history. The empire established by Gajah Mada is believed by some historians to have encompassed the whole of present-day Republic of Indonesia.

ISLAM INFLUENCE

The Javanese cultural mix was further enriched with the spread of Islam in the 15th and 16th centuries. The coastal population and the aristocracy were the first elements to be influenced by the new culture, but by the 16th century the nominally Muslim Mataram Empire had established control over the entire island. Portuguese traders visited the island in the 16th century. Toward the close of that century, Dutch traders ended Portuguese commercial influence on Java. The establishment of Batavia (now Jakarta) in 1619 signaled the birth of the new Dutch empire. The Dutch swiftly enlarged their sphere of influence and by 1755 controlled a large portion of the island. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Dutch administration in Java was manipulated by the French, who at the time occupied the Netherlands. In 1811 the British took over and remained in control of Java until 1816, when the island was restored to Dutch sovereignty. Between 1825 and 1830 Dutch authority in Java was unsuccessfully challenged by a Javanese rebellion. Thereafter, the island remained under the rule of the Netherlands until the Japanese occupation, begun in March 1942, during World War II (1939-1945).

Source :
- Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library
- Gokhale, B. G., M.A., Ph.D.
Professor of History
Director of Asian Studies Program

Selengkapnya.....